[Craig Peters]

The PDF Len posted certainly complicates the situation regarding polearms. Some of the images show polearms consistent with what we have seen before. One thing interesting is that some of the maces appear to be more consistent in length with a morning star; that is to say, they seem to have long hafts meant for two-handed use. The images are also a good reminder that in parts of Mediterranean and Eastern Europe, double headed war axes were not unknown.

However, I admit to being rather surprised to see what look like poleaxes in 9th and 11th century images. Figure one also seems to depict a pair of rather unusual polearms with sickle-like heads and mysterious top and back protrusions that are challenging to interpret.

My impression is that these images provide good evidence for regional variation in polearms. I think they may also indicate that certain polearms, like the proto-poleaxes, perhaps existed for a time, went out of fashion, and then returned. Of course, I know comparatively little about Eastern European art- perhaps some of these weapons remained in use throughout the Middle Ages. At any rate, there doesn't seem to be good evidence for their usage in Western Europe during the 11th through 14th centuries.

[Anthony Clipsom]

I think one of the problems we have is definition. Medieval people were bad at it and probably included a range of things under a heading which we would try to tease apart (because categorisation and typology is part of our scientific tradition). The obvious early polearm which is not an axe is a guisarme, which is frequently mentioned but not defined. Some believe it to be an axe with a wide blade which sweeps back toward the haft and can be attached to it (Waldman and Oakeshot, for instance). Some, therefore, might consider some of Craig's "halberds" as guisarmes. Others think it was something different.

On halberd illustrations, in Hafted weapons in Medieval Renaissance Europe Waldman illustrates many excavated examples of the early type, the earliest from the 13th century (although how secure this dating is archaeologically I wouldn't know). The Mortgarten find is illustrated (p.38). All of these are the type sometimes known as halberds, or sometimes as Swiss voulges.

Thanks to those digging out the illustrations and study material, BTW - most interesting.

[Chad Arnow]

Thanks to all who've weighed. I'm enjoying this.

The article Len posted shows a couple examples of the much-maligned double bladed axe.

[Jean Henri Chandler]

As others mentioned upthread, period terminology is not always as precise as we would like, but by the 13th Century you start to see references to something other than spears and swords being issued as special weapons. For example before the Battle of Hausbergen in 1262, which was fought mainly between the citizens of Strasbourg and her nominal overlord, the "Fighting Bishop" Walter von Geroldseck, the burghers were issued "large axes" (große Äxte, also called lange biel in one account) which were specifically made by the town artisans for the battle and were mentioned a few times in the accounts. They were told by their commanders to "hew and keep hewing no matter what happens". And this was in the knowledge they would be facing the armored cavalry of the Bishop and his vassals.

In the event the Strasbourg forces won the fight so something about it may have worked. These could have been some kind of proto-halberd or proto-glaive type of weapon. Crossbows were apparently also important in this battle.

By the end of the century you see battles like this taking place which centered around crossbows and what are clearly new types of weapons, like the goedendag in the Battle of Golden Spurs in 1302. The Goedendag is older than that battle of course, and is mentioned at least as far back as 1297.

[Jean Henri Chandler]