I’m trying to get straight on a couple of aspects of typical arms and armour for mid-to-late 14th century Western Europe. I’m hoping that folks here will be able to tell me whether the following rough generalisations are true or false, and if false (as I fear most of them probably are), what the real story is. Here they are:

ARMOUR

Most knights/men-at-arms would have worn a coat of plates, but a small number would be wearing ‘transitional’-type plate harnesses.

Most mercenary heavy infantry would have worn armour similar to that of knights.

Only poor militiamen and the like would have worn mail, and only the poorest would have to use padded or (boiled?) leather armour.

WEAPONS

Most knights would still have fought with good-ol’ arming sword and shield, but some would have switched over to longswords.

Most heavy infantry would have fought with polearms, but some (the poorer ones?) would still have been fighting with shield and spear.

Light infantry would almost universally be armed with either the longbow or the crossbow.


Now, in addition to being unsure how true the above generalisations are, I’m also quite confused about the issue of knights and polearms. I’ve heard that the poll-hammer was considered a knightly weapon, and I’ve seen 15th C paintings of knights armed with polearms and lined up like heavy infantry, but I know that paintings can be very unreliable as historical evidence. So, how common was it for knights in the mid-to-late 14th C to use polearms? When they did use them, did they carry them on horseback and then dismount to fight as heavy infantry?

Any help on clearing up my understanding of things would be greatly appreciated.

First, generalisations are just that, general. There is quite a bit of variety and variation and few real standards at this time.

Christopher Veysey wrote:

ARMOUR Most knights/men-at-arms would have worn a coat of plates, but a small number would be wearing ‘transitional’-type plate harnesses.

By the mid to late 14th Century the coat of plate is losing ground to more complete breastplates. Probably less common by this period. But quite valid still.

Christopher Veysey wrote:

Most mercenary heavy infantry would have worn armour similar to that of knights.

I don't know how much mercenary heavy infantry there was at the time. What there was would generally be classified as men-at-arms, who do typically wear a level of armor on par with, or a little below what the knights are wearing.

Christopher Veysey wrote:

Only poor militiamen and the like would have worn mail, and only the poorest would have to use padded or (boiled?) leather armour.

During this period, pretty much everybody was still wearing mail, it was used to supplement plate around the joints. Mail is quite expensive and would not be worn by 'poor' soldiers. Padded armour, such as gambesons, were not really poor armour. It was still rather expensive, and was used extensively due to it usefulness. Leather and/or hardened leather was not cheap, poor man's armour. It was only ever used as a supplement to other armour types. Leather may be used as the outer layer in padded armour (usually later than this period and still uncommon) or as a supplement to mail. Leather pieces constructed like plate armour were used to supplement full mail during the transitional period, but only uncommonly.

The poorest usually didn't fight. Such a situation was quite uncommon, and frequently unsuccessful (think peasant revolts). By the 13th C the english monarchy had laws on what military gear men were required to own and the expectation was fairly substantial. Anyone who wished to join the army had to bring their own gear and if you didn't meet the requirements you couldn't join.

WEAPONS

Christopher Veysey wrote:

Most knights would still have fought with good-ol’ arming sword and shield, but some would have switched over to longswords.

Generally yes, though remember that the primary weapon is the lance. We also seem some regional variation in this area, as the Germans seem to have adopted bigger swords earlier than others did i.e. the 'german sword of war'.

Christopher Veysey wrote:

Most heavy infantry would have fought with polearms, but some (the poorer ones?) would still have been fighting with shield and spear.

Your distinction between heavy and light infantry is not consistent with the terminology I generally see. We can instead divide up the formations between men-at-arms, halbedier/bill-men/spear-men etc. and archers. The first two both are making use of spears or more versatile polearms, and sidearms i.e. swords for melee.

Christopher Veysey wrote:

Light infantry would almost universally be armed with either the longbow or the crossbow.

The archers on the continent were almost all crossbows while the english were using massed longbows. It is only in this period that we see firepower starting to play a major role in battles and many armies are slow to adopt it.

Christopher Veysey wrote:

Now, in addition to being unsure how true the above generalisations are, I’m also quite confused about the issue of knights and polearms. I’ve heard that the poll-hammer was considered a knightly weapon, and I’ve seen 15th C paintings of knights armed with polearms and lined up like heavy infantry, but I know that paintings can be very unreliable as historical evidence. So, how common was it for knights in the mid-to-late 14th C to use polearms? When they did use them, did they carry them on horseback and then dismount to fight as heavy infantry?

The pollaxe or pollhamer was distinctly a knightly weapon but how much it was used on the battlefield is debatable. Knights were definitely known to dismount and fight as infantry in this period, the French did so at Agincourt.

Christopher Veysey wrote:

Any help on clearing up my understanding of things would be greatly appreciated.

No problem. This happens to be my period of greatest interest, so I hope to learn from this thread as well.

Hugh & Steven,

Thanks very much for the info.

@Hugh

Sorry, I didn't mean to imply that people wearing plate harnesses or a coat-of-plates wouldn't be wearing mail. I'm assuming that any combatant wearing such armour would have one layer of padded armour and one or two of mail underneath. Regarding light and heavy infantry, I agree the usage of the terminology is confusingly inconsistent. I'm using the terms in the traditional sense (i.e. heavy infantry = infantryman armed and trained to fight in the line; light infantry = infantryman armed and trained to fight, but not in the line).

@Steven

I love the pictures. As for region, I'm interested in England, Germany, France and Italy. I haven't really read anything about Italians, but IIRC they had a reputation for making good plate harnesses? I also get the impression from illustrations that Germans adopted serious plate earlier than the French and English?

Hello all!

Christopher,

Let me echo what others said and state that the coat-of-plates was going out of style by the later part of the 14th century, to be replaced by a cuirass that would soon be uncovered as the "all whyte" harness of the 15th century. This fact can be obscured by the coat armour (sometimes called a jupon) worn over the torso armour.

In many countries, the knights and non-noble men-at-arms were learning to fight on foot more often. They would use swords, axes, maces, or cut-down lances as their primary weapons. The lance was the primary weapon for knights on horseback, to be followed up by axe, mace, or sword.

There were some stylistic variations depending upon country of origin. I've seen lighter armour, with more mail, used in eastern Europe, and even Italy. A mail hauberk and a bascinet were often the only armour worn by warriors in places like Ireland, where they fought with much lighter gear. Many German effigies show some pretty unique types of armour for the limbs, often called "splinted armour" or "studded and splinted" armour.

The fourteenth century covers 100 years, and even mid-14th century arms and armour would differ from late 14th century armour. Arms and armour were always evolving, and styles and tastes changed and evolved.

I've included some images from the mid to late 14th century below. Most depict warriors of knightly rank or mat least non-noble men-at-arms, but the two images from the Villani Chronicle of the 1390s may show militiamen. Note that they are relatively lightly armed as compared to the knights from the Bible of Matteo di Planisio, circa 1362. Also note that the figures from the Budapest chronicle of circa 1360 are also fairly lightly armed as compared to some of their more western compatriots. I've also included one image from the Flemish Romance of Alexander from circa 1340 to show how styles changed from the early-mid 14th century to the late 14th century.

I found the Italian and Hungarian images here:

http://www.wga.hu/index1.html

And the Romance of Alexander and the Marco Polo manuscript (which are actually in the same manuscript, 264) here:

http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=bodleia...=msbodl264

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From the Romance of Alexander by the Flemish illuminator Jehan de Grise and his workshop, 1338-44

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Marco Polo, Li Livres du Graunt Caam, in French prose, with miniatures by Johannes and his school England c. 1400.

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Bible of Matteo di Planisio 1362

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Villani Chronicle 1390s.

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Villani Chronicle 1390s.

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Illuminated Chronicle 1360 Budapest.

Hello again!

I've found more images of 14th century armour from period art. Actually, one is early 15th century, but it shows the lighter armour used by the Irish throughout most of the middle ages.

The first image, "people in silver armour:, is from the manuscript The Hague, KB, KA 16, by Jacob van maerlant, Der Naturen Bloeme, from Flanders, circa 1350. This is in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek National Library of the Netherlands. It shows two female (?) warriors in coats-of-plates covered by a surcoat shortened in the front as was the style in the mid fourteenth century. Compare it to the ealier image from the Romance of Alexander.

The second image is "Arthur finds a giant roasting a pig" from the Chronicle of Roman de Brut by Wace, illustrated by the Canon of Bayeux, produced in England in the mid 14th century. Note the various armour pieces strapped to the hauberk. This image is from the British Library.

The third image is "The French destroy Genoa" from Chroniques de France ou de St. denis, from the end of 14th century. This and other images from the same work depict French armour of the late 14th century. This is also from the British Library.

The fourth image, "The English army marching under the banner of St. George in the Hundred Years' War" is again from the Chroniques de France ou de St. Denis, end of 14th century. Again it's from the British Library.

The fifth image is "St George on horseback, slaying the dragon". from a late 14th century French Book of Hours. Note the hourglass gauntlets, visored bascinet, and padded coat-armour worn, probably worn over a breastplate. Yet again this image is from the British Library.

The sixth image is actually from the very early 15th century, but it is a good depiction of Irish armour of the period. It depicts Art MacMurrogh, the Irish chief, coming to confer with the Earl of Gloucester, from Histoire du Roy d'Angleterre Richard II by Jean Creton. It was produced in France between 1401 and 1405. Again, it's from the British Library.

The seventh and last image is a knightly grave slab. I believe it's Hungarian, but I can't remember where I found this image. It's labelled as "Garai tombstone 1380-85". Notice the hourglass gauntlets and belt of plaques, typical of the late 14th century. Note also the coat armour or jupon laced down the centre.

Edit: I found the site where I originally found the Garai tombstone. The slab is in Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs.

Here's the web site where I found it:

http://www.hung-art.hu/index-e.html

I hope these images are of interest!

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People with silver armour, circa 1350.
© Koninklijke Bibliotheek National Library of the Netherlands

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Arthur finds a giant roasting a pig, mid 14th century.
© The British Library Board

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French destroy Genoa, late 14th century.
© The British Library Board

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The English army marching under the banner of St. George in the Hundred Years' War, late 14th century.
© The British Library Board

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St George on horseback, slaying the dragon
© The British Library Board

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Art MacMurrogh, the Irish chief, comes to confer with the Earl of Gloucester, 1401-1405 .
© The British Library Board

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Garai tombstone 1380-85

Can one of you recomend a book on the 14th century arms and armour that I could use as reference? I'm sepecially interested in the early 14th century, (I know the armoured surcoat was around then, leading to the coat of plates) in arms, armour, and various other bits and pieces of history.

M.

Hello again!

Here's an armour from the Metropolitan Museum of Art that was put together to show what armour of the period 1400 looked like. It can give you a good idea of what armour for the very late 14th - very early 15th century might have looked like. Keep in mind it's a bit of a reconstruction, and there may be some debatable features, but it can give you a decent idea of the general form of armour for that period.
Here's the desription from the museum:

Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote:

This armor was assembled and restored in the 1920s using individual elements that had been discovered in the ruins of the Venetian fortress at Chalcis, on the Greek island of Euboea, which had fallen to the Turks in 1470. The purpose was to present a full armor of the style worn about 1400, a period from which no complete armors survive. Distinctive features are the early form of brigandine (a torso defense constructed of numerous overlapping plates riveted inside a doublet) and the brass borders at the edges of the exposed plates. Portions of the brass at the top edge of the left cuisse (thigh defense), the lower edges of the right greave (lower leg defense), and the visor are genuine; the remainder is restored. The helmet, a visored bascinet, is associated with the armor. The velvet covering of the brigandine is modern.

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Armor, ca. 1400 and later
Italian
© 2000–2006 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Hello again!

Just to show more variety, here's the effigy of Walter von Hohenklingen, in an image again from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The original is in the Swiss National Museum.
Here's the museum's description:

Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote:

Swiss National Museum, Zurich Tomb effigy of Walter von Hohenklingen, ca. 1386 Courtesy of the Swiss National Museum, Zurich (AG-125) The effigy of Walter von Hohenklingen, an imperial knight killed at the battle of Sempach, depicts in minute detail the mixture of protective materials worn at the end of the fourteenth century. Note especially the following features: the mail shirt protruding from under the padded jupon, the mail neck protection (aventail) under a similarly padded cover, and the pieces of plate armor (breastplate, gauntlets, and strapped-on leg defenses), as well as the detached visor belonging to his helmet (bascinet) and the reinforcing plate strapped in front of his tournament helm (Stechhelm).

Note the ubiquitous bascinet, as well as the typical belt of plaques of the late 14th century and the hourglass gauntlets. Note also that this knight wore a breastplate over his padded coat armour/jupon.

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Tomb effigy of Walter von Hohenklingen, ca. 1386
© 2000–2006 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Hello again!

Here's a small collection of English monumental brasses from the mid to late14th century, plus an incised slab from the early 14th century for comparison (plus I thought this one was interesting).

All are from this web site:

http://www.mbs-brasses.co.uk/

The first is the incised slab of John de Botiler from St Brides Major, Glamorgan, Wales, circa 1335. Notice the simple cervelliere or early bascinet on his head, and the long surcoat over the mail. The sword is also interesting, almost Viking in appearance, with it's very short, curved cross. The pommel is hard to make out, but it may even be lobed.

The second is from the Hasting's Brass of 1347 in Elsing, Norfolk, and depicts Sir Hugh Hastings. Note the shortened surcoat, unusual early appearance of a gorget, the gutter-shaped plates on the arms, and the splinted or brigandine cuisses on the thighs.

The third is the brass of Sir Robert Bardolf, 1395, in Mapledurham, Oxfordshire. Note the tight fitting "coat armour", also known as a "jupon" over the knight's torso, covering the cuirass beneath. Note also the plate on the limbs, and the knightly belt around his waist. This armour is roughly similar to that depicted on the Black Prince's effigy in Canterbury Cathedral.

The fourth and final image is that of the brass of Sir John Bettesthorne, 1398, in Mere, Wiltshire. There are some stylistic details that differ, but the armour is basically similar to that shown on the Bardoff brass. Charles Henry Ashdown called this period of 1360-1410 the "Camail and Jupon" period for the almost ubiquitous nature of the jupon and mail aventail (or camail) on the English brasses of the time.

By the way, Charles Henry Ashdown's work European Arms & Armor is a good source for accurate drawings of the English medieval brasses, although his text is rather outdated. Still, the line drawings, which match the brasses almost exactly, are a useful resource for what the armour of the time (mostly English) looked like.

I hope this was of interest!

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John de Botiler, c. 1335
Copyright © 2002 Monumental Brass Society

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Sir Hugh Hastings, 1347
Copyright © 2002 Monumental Brass Society

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Sir Robert Bardolf, 1395
Copyright © 2002 Monumental Brass Society

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Sir John Bettesthorne, 1398
Copyright © 2002 Monumental Brass Society

Hello again!

I found a few more images on the "Fine Arts in Hungary" web site. These are both from the Illuminated Chronicle of circa 1360 in the National Széchényi Library, Budapest.

The first depicts Saint Stephen. Note the chains hanging down his chest, something that was sometimes seen in the mid 14th century. These chains attached to the breastplate, or possibly the hauberk, and then to the sword, dagger, and helm. Here the saint appears to have only two chains. He also has a jupon, and a possible gambeson hanging below the hem of his hauberk. He is more lightly armed than some of his western contemporaries; there appears to be no plate on the arms, unless there is a leather or splinted vambrace beneath the sleeve of the hauberk. The legs are hard to interpret; they might be protected by leather, or just coloured differently.

The second depicts the thanksgiving of the emperor. Note the jupons worn by the horsemen, one of which appears to be padded in a similar fashion to the Black Prince's coat armour. The arms appear protected only by the sleeves of the hauberk, while the legs do have plate protection. The shields are interesting, with the lance-notch. These style shields seem to have been popular in Hungary at the time.

I hope this was of interest!

Stay safe!

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Saint Stephen (from the Illuminated Chronicle)
c. 1360.

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Thanksgiving of the Emperor (from the Illuminated Chronicle)
c. 1360.

Hello again!

In case anyone wanted to see some examples of fourteenth century German armour, this thread:

http://www.myArmoury.com/talk/viewtopic.php?t...ght=splint

has some good photos of some German effigies. These display some of the "splinted" armour that seemed very popular in Germany in the mid to late fourteenth century.

Stay safe!

Hello again!

I found a couple images of German armour of the mid 14th century. Sorry for the small size of these; the originals were awfully small.

The first is the tomb effigy of Gunther von Schwarzburg, circa 1349. It's hard to make out the details, but von Schwarzburg wears "studded and splinted" defences on his limbs. He has a knee-length surcoat, with the skirts looser than the body. A flap of mail or a plate nosepiece hangs over his aventail. This would attach to a stud on his bascinet. This feature, of doubtful protective value, appears on some German and Italian effigies of the time.

The second is from the later 14th century. It is the effigy of Burkhard von Steinberg, died 1397. Von Steinberg also wears "studded and splinted" armour on his arms, but he has greaves made up of several large plates strapped together. He has a breastplate that almost mimics a muscle cuirass, with a laminated fauld over the abdomen. His hauberk comes to a point in the groin area. The most typically-late 14th century parts of his harness are his belt of plaques, bascinet, and hourglass gauntlets, although the cuffs may be a bit short.

I hope these images aren't too small.

Stay safe!

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Gunther von Schwarzburg, circa 1349.

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Burkhard von Steinberg, died 1397.

Richard,

John de Botiler looks like some pretty antiquated armour for the time period. Are they sure his effigy is contemporary with his date? By that decade in the 14th most english effigies have more..... armour. It is of course possible to have been mainly in mail but I would imagine most knights would have more armour by the inventoires I have seen from the opening of the 14th.

It may be worth looking at the gothic eye website has fantastic archive or effigies from this era.

RPM

@Richard

You are a veritable master of historical image finding! Thanks--that's been a great help in getting a better understanding of typical trends of the period. There's a lot more plate floating around than I would have guessed. I think that I was probably mistaking surcoats over breastplates for coat-of-plates.

Christopher,

By the 2-3 decade of the 14th almost all the major parts of armour more or less existed. Many parts had been around for fifty years before that (poleyns, couters, greaves, gorgets {though it may be some other rigid materials often}, Coat of plates, gauntlets, etc. By 1320 inventories of knights rarely do not list a healthy supply of plate bits. Blair states that you rarely come across one w/out a COP after 1320. By the 1330's it is required wear for Men at Arms by Edward III.

RPM

I've never seen anything to question the use of the pollaxe in battle save victorian scholarship, though if I remember right the pollaxe was just coming into being in this period and the English, for instance, used shortened lances as spears when fighting dismounted.

Also, the Met suit is reconstructed, but not very accuarately, so it'd be a poor guide to how armour looked (the fauld of solid plates and the funky one-piece spaulders are particuarly dubious).
-Wilhelm

The Met suit was deassesioned and sold on ebay 2 years ago I believe. It is made up of a fair percentage of pieces fabricated in the Met armour dept. if I remeber right.