As for sword inscriptions on the Ordrup Sword it looks then very much like "Romanisch Majuskel".
Behrend (1970) has placed the sword around 1200 based on the letters used, whereas Oakeshott had it around 1300-1330 based on sword typology.

Studies from Rügen points to something really interesting historically.
The Island of Rügen (in modern North Germany) was a Danish Principality conquered by the Danes in 1168 from the slavic-speaking "Wends", which is described in detail by Saxo in his Gesta Danorum.
It was under nominal Danish rule from 1168-1325 and also part of the missionary territory of the Danish Bishop of Roskilde.
Locally it was initially lead by Slavic princes under vassalage of the Danish King.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_R%C3%BCgen

Their troops became an important part of the Danish Crusader fleets in Estonia and the most renowned Prince was possibly Vitslav I who fought at the Battle of Lyndanisse (Tallinn, Reval) in 1219 and also helped with the founding of Cistercians monastaries in Rügen. [The Cistercians were the leading Christian group in Denmark with the Knights Hospitaller probably in second place.]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitslav_I,_Prince_of_R%C3%BCgen

So in Rügen you used the "Romanische Majuskel" (epigraphic inscriptions) from the late 12th century (Denmark introducers these letters after the conquest).
The first use of the "Gotische Majuskel" is from around 1320.
Source: Joachim Zdrenka (2002). Die Inschriften des Landkreises Rügen, page XXIX.

Pretty interesting that the Danish period have "Romanische Majuskel" and just around when Rügen came under the Pomeranian Dukes it changes to "Gotische Majuskel". It is first at the 14th century you start to have German settlers, whereas before it was Wendish-Danish!! So the "new people" bring in a new epigraphic script!

So when dating swords it is important to know exactly where they were produced at this transition in use of epigraphic letters can vary from one European locality to the next!
The Ordrup sword can perhaps be from mid 14th century and still show "Romanische Majuskel" if the inscription was specifically ordered by a Dane, who wanted good old style letters (I assume the blade is German produced, but maybe fittings and inscription could have been done in Denmark).
Some places perhaps delayed the transition to the "Gotische Majuskel" more than others.
Middle/Upper? Rhine area: The innovators: Early 1200.
Bayern ~1270
Denmark ~13?? (could explain how old style letters ended up on the Ordrup Sword - an early 1300's sword).

Niels, you have posted a huge amount of information! It will some time for me to process it all properly...

Niels Just Rasmussen wrote:

Just wanted to share this paleographic article find from "The elements of abbreviation in medieval Latin paleography" by ADRIANO CAPPELLI 1982, page 16-17.

Thank you for this reference, it looks very useful! I have been looking and comparing abbreviations in inscriptions on other objects and a comprehensive source should be helpful.

Niels Just Rasmussen wrote:

So since you actually have this S lying on the side in the sword inscriptions [is that from the Finnish sword?], it worth mentioning that it might not be an S at all; but Er-, Ter- when not final, and likely -ur, -tur when final.

Yes, it's the Finnish sword. I have never heard of this character before... coincidentally(?) Worley and Wagner suggest that the sequences ER, EHR, or ERT on some swords be interpreted as "honour" in German, mixed in with Latin words and abbreviations.

Niels Just Rasmussen wrote:

Furthermore you say the Padua sword has double-stroked H's like the Whitham sword (my picture shows single-stroked H's on the Whitham??

Looks like I may be in error on this one...In many photos the second H appears to have two strokes, but one may be a reflection off the ridge between the two fullers. I was sure that I had seen a closeup or illustration in the forum (from Peter Johnsson?) that clearly showed two strokes, but of course now I cannot find any such thing. Usually I am more careful than this... I will edit my other post to avoid spreading misinformation. :blush:

Still, the swords I mention share an interesting series of commonalities... The Padua sword definitely shares the rare double-H with the Finnish sword, which Oakeshott first(?) compared to the Witham sword, which is physically similar to the Whittlesea sword, which can finally be linked back to the Padua sword through the shared extensive punctuation marks.

Niels Just Rasmussen wrote:

Even more the sentence you show also includes a greek "heta" in the second line. The purpose was likely be make a distinction between latin H and the greek long E/Æ sound

Another character I was not familiar with... my weaknesses are showing! I was assuming (and still think) that the illustration is showing F's with missing inlay. the inscription seems strictly repetitive to me... allowing for missing inlay, both sides repeat HEXFR three times and open/close with the "lazy S" character. There are several other swords with similar, strict repetitions like this that I've been intending to post about...

Possibly a better candidate for a "heta" character is one from Izjaslavl, Ukraine (Изяславля) which seems to read SNEX┍NEX┍NEX┍NS. Notice the strict repetition again, and opening/closing S's. Both swords (and others) include EX in the repeated sequence... possibly for "eterni Xristos"?
[ Linked Image ]

Niels Just Rasmussen wrote:

Example of a "Romanisch Majuskel" is the "Prüfening dedicatory inscription" from 1119

I had this one in my files already as a good, legible, dated example including many different abbreviations.

Niels Just Rasmussen wrote:

Found a picture of one of the other 4 sandstone reliefs from the St. Peters Church in Utrecht

The characters on this one are mostly quite simple and plain... interesting abbreviation in "cunctor[um]" with the OR combined and the abbreviation stroke through the leg of the R making it look like an X.

[ Linked Image ]

So the Finnish Sword has a lot of repetition, but not totally:
Three S's are all lying down. All 6 H's (A's?) are double-stroked.
We have three F's and the 2 possible incomplete ones (could also be greek Gamma's) and 1 "strange letter" (heightened small letter near the end of the first line), between an F and the lying down S (which in final occurrence could be -ur/-tur).
Then we have 5 E's and then a C that might be an incomplete E.

1st line:
+ SHEXFRHEX(F/G)RHEXF?S+
So clearly a repetition of three occurring EX:
+SH - EX - FRH - EX - (F/G)RH - EX - F?S+ (the ? is definitely not an R).

2nd line:
+SHEXFRH(C/E)X(F/heta)RHEX....
Repetition also clear here: + SH - EX - FRH (C/E)X - (F/heta)RH - EX - ? ends without a + so maybe incomplete??

Both lines begin with "lying-down S" and "double-stroked H".
Both lines seems to have three recurring EX's [where the "C" should be an E] and two recurring FRH (though the second one is questionable in each line).
The F?S ending in line one is unique, but the second line is likely incomplete as no + ends it.

So with the SH as a possible "Ter-/Er- A" meaning, we can't really get any further if we can't make sense of the rest.
"FRH" could thus also be "FRA". But FR surely could be an Abbreviation for "Frater" = brother (Fitting FRA even more), which would make sense in a crusader context as Finland in that time period.
So some word with E preceding X, which must stand for "Christus" (using the greek X letter).

Have to think about this..... :lol:

Having fun here: FRH EX
Fratrem electum Christi = ["Chosen brother of Christ"] or some variants to this idea.
Maybe a bit far out, but cool text if you are a self-aware crusader knight, he sees himself as brother-in-arms with Christ himself fighting the pagans.
Someone need to check my latin here if it is correct.....

More "title like": Frater elector Christi ["Brother-elect" of Christ]. Templars were brothers and had "electors".

To continue with the Swedish swords:

Karlstad sword:
Both sides of the sword have identical inscriptions:
+ERTISSDXCNERTISSDX+

The third and twelfth letter us interpreted as a T (both time preceding the "IS letter").
"The T is sickle-shaped with a double stem. The letter forms are to be classified as late Romanic/ early Gothic, 12th-13th centuries, due to the typical forms of T".
So this type of T should then be typical of a transition phase between Romanische and Frühe Gotische Majuskel?

This T-letter doesn't have to be a T , but could be something else as the authors recognize (an IC ligature).
So again big discussion can be made whether the fourth letter in this case is the ligature IS or a U!

Their alternative guess I actually really like (here "T" is IC and "IS" is U):
Ericus D(u)x C Nericus D(u)x - "Duke Erik, Duke of Närke". [Närke is spelled Neeric (1165-81) on old Swedish!].
Here the middle "C" as a "chrismon" (symbol of Christ), where "X" or "P" also was used.
The authors don't think this reading likely.

The (N)ERTIS is interpreted by the authors as perhaps: “N(OMEN) E(TERNUM) R(EGIS) T(RINI) I(ESU)S", but can also be the German words Eret (honour) and Neret (protect). The authors seems to prefer this explation.

With the SDX as a fixed combination of “SANCTUS DOMINUS XRISTUS" and furthermore the IS ligature could possibly for "Iesus" the following reading is proposed by the authors “Venerate Jesus, the Holy Lord Christ, protect Jesus, the Holy Lord Christ” can be done from this interpretation.
+ER(e)T IesuS Sanctus Dominus Xristus C NER(e)T IesuS Sanctus Dominus Xristus+

The authors gets to one primary conclusion, that swords very likely show a mixture of German and Latin words!
It certainly doesn't make it easier.

A fascinating possibility about the Karlstad sword is that both readings could be correct at the same time, which would be some feat to achieve; but possible thanks to ambiguous letters on the sword (U or IS, IC or T).
Reading A) +ERICUS DuX C NERICUS DuX+ -> "Erik Jarl", Närke Jarl"
Reading B) +ER(e)T IesuS Sanctus Dominus Xristus C NER(e)T IesuS Sanctus Dominus Xristus+ -> "Venerate Jesus, the Holy Lord Christ, protect Jesus, the Holy Lord Christ".

The "Dux" is very likely just a translation of the Scandinavian title Jarl (English: Earl). In medieval Swedish "Jerl".

So perhaps an Erik was Jarl (Dux) of Neeric (modern Närke) as the district was called in the 1100's.

Could very well be a member of Bjälboätten (House of Bjälbo), which is very prominent in Sweden in the 1100-1300's and almost got a monopoly on Swedish Earls, before they themselves became Swedish Kings and abolished the title in 1308.

The earliest known family member of the House of Bjälbo is Folke "the fat", who becomes Jarl in ~1100 under King Inge I Stenkilsson den äldre (the Old). The King was seated in nearby Östergötland (and a Christian - he burned the pagan Temple in Uppsala in 1087).
Folke was paternal grandfather of Birger "the smiling" ("Brosa"), who was the leading Swedish Jarl from 1174-1202 and called interestingly enough for "Dux Sweorum"! He was the most powerful man in Östergötland and also owned estates in Närke! He was a great donator to the Cistercian monastery of Risaberga in Närke. So Närke was part of the core territory.

The nephew of Birger Brosa was known as Birger Magnusson "Jarl" as he became the leading Earl of Sweden (1248-1266)and also using the latin title "Dux Sweorum".

One of Birger Jarls' sons "Valdemar Birgersson" was made King of Sweden in 1250-1275, just to be succeeded by his younger brother Magnus III Birgersson "Ladulås" ("Barnlock" or a corruption of Ladislaus) as King 1275-1290.
Magnus' son Birger Magnusson was King from 1290-1318.

So an extremely powerful family.
So it is not unlikely that at some point a member of the Bjälbo family had an "Erik", who was Jarl (Dux) of Närke during the 12th/13th century where the sword is tentatively dated, but it seems possible if not even likely in my opinion.
This Erik could also be from another family, without changing the the possibility of an Erik Jarl.

As they were also devout (fanatic?) Christian - the “Venerate Jesus, the Holy Lord Christ, protect Jesus, the Holy Lord Christ” seems very fitting for them as well.
So I'll go for this double meaning!

Mārce! (Latin vocative...)
You sold me on the H as in fact some kind of N.
What is interesting is their 2009 article have two examples of "double-barred-H + N" together (not double-barred-H occurring in its own without a following N). So what is going on here?

So I'll throw out a wild guess that perhaps HN together is a nasalized N [the old germanic -ing sound as seen inEnglish /Ing-lish/] which in modern phonology has the letter ŋ.
[Exists as its own letter in the older futhark - the IngvaR/YngvaR runes in Scandinavian or Proto-Germanic Ingwaz].

So H without the following N could be a "long N" as we would write as NN.

Your Ukrainian examples +BE/double-stroked-H/EDIC.... makes it VERY likely that the reading must be Benedictus. Here it really looks like a single N (but local pronounciation could have been /Bennedictus/).

I would be really nice to have a better look at the Finnish sword, that even if some inlay was missing an X-ray for instance should give a better indication of what some of the letters really look like! Hope your Finnish book have better pictures than your current one. Curved ϵ's alternating with straight E's are a definite possibility of convention as the changes between uses in N's and C (G's?).

Your guess for NEXORE as "Nomen Eterni Xristos Omnipotens RegE (or REge)" ["The name of eternal Christ, the almighty king"] is really cool.

As I'm not even close to being a latin expert: You have .........., Omnipotens Rege.
If the meaning as a full title "All-powerful King", then shouldn't both words be in Nominative singularis masculinum?
So "........Christus, Omnipotens Rex".
"Rege" is Ablative Singularis of Rex - which I can't get to fit. [Omnipotens is an adjective that modifies Rex]

The Swords has NEXORE: I would think that the -ORE ending would be the Omnipotens Rex Eternus (Medieval variant of Classical latin written Aeternus -> "Allmighty and eternal King"). Hence you avoid having the last RE for one word.
Omnipotens and aeternus are adjectives, which must follow the case of the noun - here in nominative singularis masculinum (Rex).

EDIT:
Another possible variant:
Omnipotens Rex Eterni
Here Eterni would be in the singularis masculinum genitive case.
"The Allmighy King of Eternity"
I found some Latin Medieval inscriptions with Omnipotens Rex Eternae/Eterne, where Eternae seems to be singularis femininum genitive case, though I'm at a loss why it's the case?

So perhaps two half lines NEX-ORE could be explored.

To end with the last of the Swedish swords in the 2009 article by Wagner et al. - the second Fyris sword UMF/B 74.

This sword the authors classify as an Oakeshott type XI or XIa and it has a very long inscription on one side and a much shorter on the other:

Obverse:
SCSDXCEROXMATRCIIISSCSDXCERNISSCSDXMTOERISC

Reverse:
T T (or T A T A)

The first SCS is clearly "Sanctus" - they inform us about that "the letters SCS is marked with an abbreviation stroke", but it only shows up on the two later SCS clusters in the inscription as a sub-linear dash under the C alone.
The SCS cluster often occurs with a supralinear dash over the C (or with a dash through the middle of the C) as can sometimes be seen on inscriptions.

DX the author interpret as "Dominus Xhristos" (using the greek letter X instead of C for Christus).

So SCSDX is clearly "Holy Lord Christ".

The line has in fact 4 X's so that is a lot of "Xhristos/Christus" in one sentence - so I do wonder if the X could be used as a "Chrismon" and "spacing" between sentences? [With the above mentioned Karlstad sword the C there if used as a Christmon actually separated two different lines].
This hypothesis of mine can be immediately discarded as we 3 times have the combination SCSDX

SCSDXCEROXMATRCIIISSCSDXCERNISSCSDXMTOERISC

That still leaves distinct letter combinations in between this repetition, though.

A) CEROXMATRIIIS
B) CERNIS
C) MTOERISC

ad A)
This one have the problem that the letters CER are only partly preserved (especially the first two can be interpreted otherwise).
The O2 looking letters they interpret as an M.
The three I's after each other looks unusual. The first two being normals I's and the third letters they interpret as the ligature IS. This ligature they later notes can be used to indicate "Iesus" (it can also be interpreted as an U)
So the interpretation of the letters are still somewhat tentative.

We see also that on the first two occasions the SCS DX is followed by a C.
Maybe this C following the X is then a "Chrismon" used to separate line or just XC stands for Christos/Christus?

Then I get these lines, that actually now starts to show some structure!!
SCS DX
C(hrismon)
EROXMATRIIIS
SCSDX
C(hrismon)
ERNIS
SCSDX
MTOERISC

The authors speculate that the ER could be German "Ehre" as in the Karlstad sword (just here in the singular), which I wholeheartedly agrees with is likely.
1) ER + OMATRIIIS
2) ER + NIS
3) MTO + ER + ISC

First line:
Ehre first.
The the following O is really odd here. The authors comes with the suggestion of an Invocative O.
MATRIIIS (or MATRIIU) is probably a name of some sorts if it follows "Ehre".
The authors speculate and find MATRICIUS, MAVRICIUS, MARTINIUS
Names in Scandinavia can easily be spelled with a double I - like Fris/Friis or Ris/Riis so maybe that is what we see here.
The final IS/U ligature could perhaps symbolize a -us/-ius ending.

NB: Have to throw in a wild guess.
ERO could alternatively be Latin [= "I will be", first person singular futurum of Sum (= "am")].
- then MATRIIIS is no name, but have another meaning.
MATRIS is singular genitive of MATER. (so I just take the three I's as emphasize or the Trinity for this option?)

It gets really interesting: ERO X(= Christus) MATRIS -> "I will be Mother of Christ" or something like that at it is unknown in which case Christ appears in, but most likely Christus.
"I will be the Mother of Christ" is likely not meant as the wielder of the sword :p (that would be something), but words of the Virgin Mary put on the sword.

Second line:
ER-N-IS -> "Ehre nomen Iesus", perhaps. -> "Honour the name of Jesus".
- here the C before ER is omitted as just a "Chrismon".

Another wild guess, where you incorporate the C and read it in latin:
CERNIS is in fact also latin:
"You see/discern/separate" [second person singular present of "cerno"]
CERNIS SCS DX -> CERNIS Sanctus Dominus Christus -> "You see the Holy Lord Christ".

Third line:
Here is it important to note that the MTO is a combination of letters - O2 cluster - smaller C with a T-like structure above it - O with a supralinear dash over it. So this could be some kind of abbreviation.
Have to think more about this one.....
The ER + ISC ending seems to me as "Ehre Iesus Christus" -> "Honour Jesus Christ"

After reading the article by
Worley & Wagner (2013)
How to make swords talk: an interdisciplinary approach to understanding medieval swords and their inscriptions.
Waffen- und Kostümkunde, 55(2): 113-132
Source: http://www.gustavianum.uu.se/digitalAssets/19...ptions.pdf
there is the following statement I think is spot on when it comes to researching most sword inscriptions:

"The point as regards sword inscriptions is that while some of the letter combinations on sword
blades are clearly abbreviated forms of Latin words, such as the “SCSDX” combination, other
combinations cannot be understood so easily. Neither can they be equated with vernacular
languages that would be appropriate. So, seeing as how magical practices would seem to have
permeated medieval life it would appear appropriate to attempt to understand sword inscriptions
along those lines. However, while this is almost certainly a valuable addition to the
sword inscription interpreters’ toolbox it comes at a heavy price. In short, it means that it is
possible that parts of the inscriptions will never be fully understood. Some letters for example
may be offhand one letter abbreviations of whole words from any number of different
sources from psalms to long forgotten names. These are intermingled with other letters that
are purposely meant to be nonsense and thus un-interpretable".
Source (page 119-120): http://www.gustavianum.uu.se/digitalAssets/19...ptions.pdf

If the text on a sword is intelligible it is in my opinion done ON PURPOSE!
The message gives (magical/divine) power to the sword and wielder and is a secret (actually Rune means secret so obfuscating of inscriptions on weapons can have a long history from the Iron Age!), that is not meant to be deciphered by others. If the also mix between different languages it gets even harder!
So when scholars assumes misspellings on sword inscriptions, when trying to fit a meaning to the letters, they could in fact miss an important point.

Hypothesis:
Some sword inscriptions are perhaps deliberately created this way, NOT because people couldn't read or spell correctly, but maybe because they actually COULD and thus it was extremely necessary to obfuscate the text!
If a sword's inscription was meant to be seen and read, then the text would be legible and we do find some swords where it is the case.

NB: I neither state that this obfuscation is the case for all abbreviated sword inscriptions.
The Ordrup Sword possibly had a fairly straightforward NNDIC = IN NOMINE NOSTRI DOMINI IESUS CHRISTUS, that would be somewhat obvious to most readers of Latin (though normally the order is Nomine Domini Nostri, so perhaps some obfuscation going on or simply that NNDIC looks aesthetically better than NDNIC?).

So trying to decipher an obscure sword inscription is probably more like code breaking, where you don't presume spelling errors. If someone uses a "book cipher" then it is impossible to crack the code without knowing the book.
If we are lucky that they uses initial letters for each word in correct order from for instance a Christian prayer, we might get lucky in finding a match, but if they used one initial letter to refer to a whole psalm, then the list of letters will likely be impossible to decipher.

So if we find CDPOCCT we might get lucky and equate it with "Credo in Deum Patrem omnipotentem, Creatorem caeli et terrae". But it could be also written CRIDEPROPTCRCETR and with many other possible variants as well.
It's easy if you know what you mean yourself when you put it on the sword, but makes it close to impossible for others!
What is important is that you yourself have the "Apostles creed" on your sword, when going into the world the spread the good news (eu-aggelion).

What if the writer of the sword wrote CPA..... and he meant:
1) C indicating the entire Apostles Creed
2) P indicated the entire Pater Noster
3) A Indicates the Ave Maria.
That would be impossible to crack and even if we by chance actually made the right assumption it would be impossible to prove or disprove.
Even if we was able to resurrect the guy from the dead and ask him, he could perhaps still lie to keep the magical line a secret so you would also have to invent mind-reading.

So our best attempt is to find clusters of letters to appear again and again like DIC, NED, SCS DX etc that seem to have a standard (non-secret) meaning.
Then we at least have a framework for trying to decipher the letters incurring in between.

Hi Niels,
I agree that some inscriptions are likely to be completely or partially impossible to interpret - either as a result of deliberately concealed meanings or obscure abbreviation schemes. A "code-breaking" approach based on comparing inscriptions on swords and other objects for shared or repetitive elements seems like the best approach to me.

Based on the number of common elements we can already see, I think there is hope that many inscriptions do not fall into the "book cypher" category. Many of the longest and complex inscriptions do seem to include fragments of words, and share many common sequences - even if the meaning is not clear. Inscriptions involving only a few characters are the most likely to be impossible to interpret since there is so little information to work with... what does LNL mean? ATA? FPF? All real examples... coincidentally, all are palindromes - perhaps the most likely category to be associated with obscure magical phrases?

The SDX sequence is quite distinctive though even it seems to occur in several variations: ISScSDX, ISSDX, ISDX, ISScSD, etc. There is no consistent system of abbreviation.

Regarding the possible sequences EROXMATRIS and CERNISScSDX, I am not quite sure what to think but have a couple observations. Both overlap another sequence SCSDXCER which occurs twice in the inscription... so either the apparent words ero and cernis are coincidental or we are seeing a sophisticated multi-level system of sequences and abbreviations! CERNIS is also overlapping some of the letters of ISScSDX which fit the reading Iesus Sanctus Dominus Christos so nicely...

Similarities can be found on another inscription mentioned in the paper, on sword W1830 in Berlin. This one includes CE..NISROX, followed by an apparent name MTINIUS. The illustration suggests the missing letter is not an R, so possibly not a match for cernis, but illustrations can be unreliable. ROX occurs without the preceding E, so not ero? But it is directly followed in both inscriptions by the personal reference to Martin(?) and Mother/Mary(?) - so seemingly a similar "grammatical" construction. ROXMR appears also on the Whittlesea Mere sword... MR (and MA) was definitely in use as an abbreviation for Mater/Maria (which does not guarantee that's what it is here of course).